Scripture Atlas: 97 sacred texts, 4,626 years of belief

Start here: the strangest stories

✶ Mesopotamia & the LevantThe first named author in history was a womanHymns of Enheduanna → ☸ BuddhismThe world's oldest dated printed bookDiamond Sutra → ☿ Hermetic, Magical & MysteriousThe book nobody on Earth can readVoynich Manuscript → ✡ JudaismThe banned book about fallen angels who taught humans magicBook of Enoch → Ω Greece & RomeEurope's oldest surviving book survived because it was burnedDerveni Papyrus → ✡ JudaismA shepherd threw a stone into a cave and found the oldest BiblesDead Sea Scrolls → ☿ Hermetic, Magical & MysteriousThe 75 kg Bible with a full-page portrait of the DevilCodex Gigas → ✦ AfricaThe Ark of the Covenant is in Ethiopia (says this book)Kebra Nagast →

4,600 years at a glance

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Ancient Egypt 5 texts

The world's oldest religious texts carved in stone, painted on coffins and rolled into papyrus guides to the afterlife.

Ancient Egypt · Old Kingdom Egypt

Pyramid Texts

The oldest religious writing on Earth is carved inside a tomb

When: c. 2400–2300 BCE
Language: Old Egyptian (hieroglyphic)

Hundreds of spells carved on the burial chamber walls of Old Kingdom pyramids at Saqqara. They describe the king's journey to the afterlife, his union with Osiris and his ascent to the sky as a star.

Tradition says

Spoken by priests to help the dead king rise to join Ra and the stars.

Scholars say

Anonymous priestly compositions, probably from Heliopolis; first carved inside the pyramid of King Unas (5th Dynasty).

Did you know? Some spells threaten the gods themselves if they refuse to let the king pass.

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Ancient Egypt · Middle Kingdom Egypt

Coffin Texts

When the afterlife stopped being for kings only

When: c. 2100–1800 BCE
Language: Middle Egyptian

Over 1,100 spells painted inside wooden coffins. They brought royal afterlife magic to ordinary elites and include the Book of Two Ways, the first known map of the underworld.

Tradition says

Sacred spells for the protection of the dead.

Scholars say

Anonymous; adapted from the Pyramid Texts and painted inside the coffins of officials and nobles.

Did you know? The Book of Two Ways is one of the oldest illustrated 'books' in the world.

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Ancient Egypt · Egypt

Maxims of Ptahhotep

The world's oldest self-help book is 4,000 years old

When: c. 2000–1800 BCE (set in c. 2400 BCE)
Language: Middle Egyptian

Wisdom literature from a father to his son on humility, justice, listening and self-control. It sits alongside temple texts as a guide to living in line with Ma'at, cosmic order.

Tradition says

Advice from Ptahhotep, vizier to King Djedkare Isesi of the 5th Dynasty.

Scholars say

Probably composed in the Middle Kingdom and attributed to the famous vizier; best copy is the Prisse Papyrus.

Did you know? It advises: 'Good speech is more hidden than greenstone, yet it is found among maids at the grindstones.'

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Ancient Egypt · New Kingdom to Ptolemaic Egypt

Book of the Dead

Also called Book of Coming Forth by Day

Your heart is weighed against a feather. Here's the cheat sheet.

When: c. 1550–50 BCE
Language: Egyptian (hieroglyphic & hieratic)

Illustrated papyrus scrolls placed in tombs with about 190 known spells. Spell 125 shows the Weighing of the Heart before Osiris, where the deceased recites the 'Negative Confession' of 42 sins not committed.

Tradition says

Spells revealed by Thoth, god of writing and magic.

Scholars say

Many anonymous scribes; each papyrus was custom-made for its owner, such as the Papyrus of Ani (c. 1250 BCE).

Did you know? The Papyrus of Ani in the British Museum is about 24 metres long.

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Ancient Egypt · Amarna Egypt

Great Hymn to the Aten

The pharaoh who tried to replace every god with one sun

When: c. 1350 BCE
Language: Late Egyptian

A hymn to the sun disk Aten, written during Akhenaten's religious revolution. Its praise of a single creator who cares for every creature is often compared with Psalm 104.

Tradition says

Composed by Pharaoh Akhenaten.

Scholars say

Attributed to Akhenaten; preserved in the tomb of the official Ay at Amarna.

Did you know? After Akhenaten died, his successors tried to erase his name from history.

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Mesopotamia & the Levant 8 texts

Sumer, Akkad, Babylon and Ugarit: clay tablets holding the first named author, the first flood story and the first epic.

Mesopotamia & the Levant · Sumer

Kesh Temple Hymn

One of the first pieces of literature ever written was a love letter to a building

When: c. 2600 BCE
Language: Sumerian (cuneiform)

A hymn in eight 'houses' (stanzas) celebrating the temple of Kesh and its goddess. It was copied by scribes for over 800 years.

Tradition says

A hymn praising the temple of the mother goddess Ninhursag at Kesh.

Scholars say

Anonymous Sumerian scribes; copies found at Abu Salabikh are among the oldest surviving literature.

Did you know? The site of the city of Kesh itself has never been firmly identified.

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Mesopotamia & the Levant · Akkadian Empire

Hymns of Enheduanna

Also called The Exaltation of Inanna

The first named author in history was a woman

When: c. 2285–2250 BCE
Language: Sumerian

Hymns to the goddess Inanna and the 42 Temple Hymns. Enheduanna writes in the first person about being exiled and restored, making her poetry deeply personal.

Tradition says

Written by Enheduanna, high priestess of the moon god Nanna at Ur.

Scholars say

Accepted by most scholars as the first author in history known by name; daughter of Sargon of Akkad.

Did you know? Her name and image survive on an alabaster disc found at Ur in 1927.

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Mesopotamia & the Levant · Sumer & Babylon

Epic of Gilgamesh

A flood story written 1,000 years before Noah

When: c. 2100 BCE (Sumerian poems) – c. 1200 BCE (standard version)
Language: Sumerian, Akkadian

Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu slay monsters, and after Enkidu dies Gilgamesh searches for immortality. Tablet XI tells of Utnapishtim, who survives a great flood in a boat.

Tradition says

The deeds of Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, two-thirds god and one-third man.

Scholars say

Sumerian poems later shaped into the 'standard' Babylonian epic by the scholar-priest Sîn-lēqi-unninni.

Did you know? A missing piece of Tablet V turned up in 2011 in an Iraqi museum, adding 20 new lines.

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Mesopotamia & the Levant · Sumer

Descent of Inanna

Seven gates, seven garments and a goddess hung on a hook

When: c. 1900–1600 BCE (copies)
Language: Sumerian

Inanna passes through seven gates, removing a piece of clothing at each, until she is killed and hung on a hook. She is rescued, but someone must take her place, and that is her husband Dumuzi.

Tradition says

The journey of the goddess Inanna into the underworld of her sister Ereshkigal.

Scholars say

Anonymous Sumerian myth, known from Old Babylonian tablets from Nippur and Ur.

Did you know? It is one of the oldest known death-and-return myths.

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Mesopotamia & the Levant · Babylon

Code of Hammurabi

An eye for an eye, carved in stone, given by the sun god

When: c. 1755–1750 BCE
Language: Akkadian

282 laws on trade, family, property and punishment. The top of the stele shows Hammurabi receiving royal authority from Shamash.

Tradition says

Laws given to King Hammurabi by Shamash, god of justice.

Scholars say

Commissioned by Hammurabi of Babylon; the best copy is a 2.25 m basalt stele now in the Louvre.

Did you know? The stele was carried off as war loot to Susa in Iran and found there in 1901.

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Mesopotamia & the Levant · Old Babylonian

Atra-Hasis

The gods sent a flood because humans were too noisy

When: c. 1700 BCE
Language: Akkadian

An epic covering creation, the making of humans from clay and divine blood, and a great flood. It explains why the gods limited human lifespans.

Tradition says

The story of the wise man Atra-Hasis, warned by the god Enki.

Scholars say

Best copy written by the scribe Ipiq-Aya during the reign of Ammi-Saduqa of Babylon.

Did you know? It is one of the oldest stories where humans are created to do the gods' work.

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Mesopotamia & the Levant · Babylon

Enūma Eliš

The god who built the world from a dragon's corpse

When: c. 1700–1100 BCE (debated)
Language: Akkadian

Seven tablets telling how Marduk defeats the primordial sea goddess Tiamat, splits her body to make heaven and earth, and becomes king of the gods.

Tradition says

The Babylonian creation epic, recited at the New Year festival.

Scholars say

Anonymous; many scholars date it to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar I (c. 1100 BCE).

Did you know? Its title comes from its first words: 'When on high…'

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Mesopotamia & the Levant · Ugarit (Canaan)

Baal Cycle

The storm god who fought the sea and death itself

When: c. 1400–1200 BCE
Language: Ugaritic

Baal battles Yam (the sea), gets a palace built, and is swallowed by Mot (death) before returning to life. It sheds light on the Canaanite gods named in the Hebrew Bible.

Tradition says

Myths of Baal, the Canaanite storm god.

Scholars say

Written down by the scribe Ilimilku of Ugarit, on the coast of modern Syria.

Did you know? Ugarit was rediscovered in 1928 when a farmer's plough struck a tomb.

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Judaism 9 texts

From the Torah to the Talmud and the mystical Kabbalah, three thousand years of Hebrew and Aramaic scripture and commentary.

Judaism · Ancient Israel

Book of Psalms

The most-quoted poems of the last 2,500 years

When: c. 10th–3rd century BCE
Language: Biblical Hebrew

150 songs of praise, lament, thanksgiving and royal ceremony. Psalm 23 ('The Lord is my shepherd') is among the best-known texts in the world.

Tradition says

Largely composed by King David.

Scholars say

Many authors over many centuries; collected as the hymnbook of the Second Temple.

Did you know? Psalms is the book most often found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.

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Judaism · Ancient Israel & Judah

Torah (Five Books of Moses)

Also called Pentateuch

613 commandments, one scroll, copied by hand letter for letter

When: c. 10th–5th century BCE
Language: Biblical Hebrew

Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy: creation, the patriarchs, the Exodus from Egypt and the law. It is read aloud in synagogues in a yearly cycle.

Tradition says

Given by God to Moses at Mount Sinai.

Scholars say

Most scholars see it as woven from several earlier sources and edited into its final form around the 6th–5th century BCE.

Did you know? A kosher Torah scroll contains 304,805 letters and a single error can make it unfit for use.

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Judaism · Kingdom of Judah

Book of Isaiah

A 2,100-year-old copy that's almost identical to today's

When: c. 8th–5th century BCE
Language: Biblical Hebrew

Prophecies of judgement and comfort, visions of the heavenly throne, and the 'suffering servant'. It is one of the most influential prophetic books for Jews and Christians.

Tradition says

Written by the prophet Isaiah of Jerusalem.

Scholars say

Usually divided into three parts written in the 8th century, the exile, and after the return.

Did you know? The Great Isaiah Scroll from Qumran is complete and over 7 metres long.

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Judaism · Second Temple Judea; Ethiopia

Book of Enoch

Also called 1 Enoch

The banned book about fallen angels who taught humans magic

When: c. 300 BCE – 1st century CE
Language: Aramaic (original), Ge'ez (complete)

Tells of the Watchers, angels who descended, fathered giants (the Nephilim) and taught forbidden arts. It is part of the Bible of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.

Tradition says

Written by Enoch, great-grandfather of Noah, who 'walked with God'.

Scholars say

Five separate books by anonymous authors; the oldest part, the Book of the Watchers, dates to about 300–200 BCE.

Did you know? It survives complete only in Ge'ez; Europe rediscovered it when James Bruce brought copies from Ethiopia in 1773.

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Judaism · Second Temple Judea

Dead Sea Scrolls

A shepherd threw a stone into a cave and found the oldest Bibles

When: c. 250 BCE – 68 CE
Language: Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek

About 900 manuscripts from 11 caves, discovered between 1947 and 1956. They include the oldest known copies of the Hebrew Bible along with community rules and apocalyptic texts.

Tradition says

Sacred texts hidden in caves near the Dead Sea.

Scholars say

Copied by many scribes; many scholars link the collection to a sect at Qumran, often identified with the Essenes.

Did you know? The Copper Scroll lists hidden treasure that has never been found.

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Judaism · Roman Galilee

Mishnah

When the oral law was finally written down

When: c. 200 CE
Language: Mishnaic Hebrew

Six orders covering agriculture, festivals, marriage, civil law, temple service and purity. It is the foundation of the Talmud.

Tradition says

The Oral Torah given at Sinai alongside the written Torah.

Scholars say

Edited by Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi from generations of rabbinic teaching.

Did you know? Its tractate Pirkei Avot ('Ethics of the Fathers') is still studied weekly by many.

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Judaism · Late Antique Judaism

Sefer Yetzirah

Also called Book of Formation

God created the universe with 32 secret paths

When: c. 2nd–6th century CE (debated)
Language: Hebrew

A short, cryptic work describing creation through the 10 sefirot and the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet. It is the earliest text of Jewish mysticism.

Tradition says

Attributed to the patriarch Abraham, or to Rabbi Akiva.

Scholars say

Anonymous; dates proposed range from the 2nd to the 9th century.

Did you know? Legend says rabbis used it to create a golem.

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Judaism · Sasanian Babylonia

Babylonian Talmud

A 1.8-million-word argument that never ends

When: c. 500–600 CE
Language: Hebrew, Jewish Babylonian Aramaic

The Mishnah with the Gemara, centuries of rabbinic debate on law, ethics, stories and folklore. Every page is laid out with layers of commentary around the core text.

Tradition says

Completed under the sages Rav Ashi and Ravina.

Scholars say

Generations of rabbis (Amoraim) and later editors (Savoraim).

Did you know? Daf Yomi readers finish all 2,711 pages in about seven and a half years.

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Judaism · Medieval Castile (Spain)

Zohar

Also called Book of Splendour

The book of Kabbalah's hidden light

When: c. 1280s CE
Language: Aramaic

A mystical commentary on the Torah describing the inner life of God through the sefirot, the soul and the Shekhinah (divine presence). It is the central text of Kabbalah.

Tradition says

Teachings of Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, a 2nd-century sage hiding in a cave.

Scholars say

Most scholars credit Moses de León and his circle in 13th-century Spain.

Did you know? It was first printed in Mantua and Cremona in 1558–60.

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Christianity 7 texts

Gospels, letters, apocalypses and the lost Gnostic gospels buried in the Egyptian desert.

Christianity · Ptolemaic Alexandria

Septuagint

Also called LXX

72 translators, 72 days, one miracle (says the legend)

When: c. 3rd–1st century BCE
Language: Koine Greek

The Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures, used by the early Church and quoted in the New Testament. It is still the Old Testament of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Tradition says

Translated by 72 Jewish elders for Ptolemy II, all producing identical versions.

Scholars say

Translated in stages by Jewish scholars in Alexandria, starting with the Torah.

Did you know? 'Septuagint' comes from the Latin for 'seventy'.

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Christianity · Roman Empire

Letters of Paul

Also called Pauline Epistles

The oldest Christian writings were letters

When: c. 50–60 CE
Language: Koine Greek

Letters to young churches across the Mediterranean on faith, grace, resurrection and community life. 1 Thessalonians (c. 50 CE) is likely the oldest book of the New Testament.

Tradition says

Thirteen letters by the Apostle Paul.

Scholars say

Seven are undisputed (Romans, 1–2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, Philemon); others may be by followers.

Did you know? 1 Corinthians 13 ('Love is patient, love is kind') is one of the most-read texts at weddings.

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Christianity · Early Christianity

Gospel of Thomas

114 secret sayings of Jesus, with no miracles and no crucifixion

When: c. 60–250 CE (debated)
Language: Greek (fragments), Coptic

A sayings gospel without narrative. Some sayings match the canonical gospels; others are mysterious, such as 'Split a piece of wood; I am there.'

Tradition says

Secret sayings written down by Didymus Judas Thomas.

Scholars say

A collection of 114 sayings; scholars disagree on whether its core is early or 2nd-century.

Did you know? Greek fragments of it were dug up at Oxyrhynchus before anyone knew what they were.

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Christianity · Roman Empire

The Four Gospels

Four portraits of Jesus, and why they differ

When: c. 66–110 CE
Language: Koine Greek

Accounts of the life, teachings, death and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. Matthew, Mark and Luke share much material and are called the 'synoptic' gospels.

Tradition says

Written by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.

Scholars say

Originally anonymous; Mark is usually dated first (c. 66–70 CE) and John last (c. 90–110 CE).

Did you know? The oldest gospel fragment, Papyrus 52, is a scrap of John the size of a credit card.

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Christianity · Roman Asia Minor

Book of Revelation

Also called Apocalypse of John

Seven seals, four horsemen and the number 666

When: c. 95 CE
Language: Koine Greek

An apocalyptic vision of cosmic battle, judgement and a new heaven and earth. Its imagery has fed art, prophecy and popular culture for 1,900 years.

Tradition says

Written by John the Apostle.

Scholars say

Written by a prophet called John on the island of Patmos, probably not the apostle.

Did you know? Some early manuscripts give the beast's number as 616.

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Christianity · Roman Egypt

Nag Hammadi Library

Lost gospels found in a jar by a farmer digging for fertiliser

When: texts c. 2nd–3rd century; codices c. 350–400 CE
Language: Coptic

Thirteen leather-bound codices with 52 texts found in 1945, including the Gospel of Truth, the Apocryphon of John and the Gospel of Philip. They transformed what we know about early Christian diversity.

Tradition says

Secret writings of Gnostic Christian groups.

Scholars say

Coptic translations of earlier Greek texts by many hands, buried in a jar in Upper Egypt.

Did you know? Some pages are said to have been burned as kindling before scholars got them.

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Christianity · Roman Empire

Codex Sinaiticus

The world's oldest complete Bible is split across four countries

When: c. 330–360 CE
Language: Koine Greek

A handwritten Greek Bible on parchment. Its leaves are now held in London, Leipzig, St Petersburg and Sinai, and all of it has been digitised online.

Tradition says

A sacred Bible preserved at St Catherine's Monastery, Sinai.

Scholars say

Copied by at least three scribes; the oldest complete New Testament.

Did you know? More leaves were found in a sealed room at the monastery in 1975.

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Islam 3 texts

The Quran, the sayings of the Prophet, and the poetry of the Sufi mystics.

Islam · Arabia

Quran

Memorised word-for-word by millions

When: 610–632 CE (revelation); c. 650 CE (standard text)
Language: Classical Arabic

114 surahs (chapters) covering God's oneness, prophets, law, ethics and the Day of Judgement. It is recited in daily prayer and its Arabic is considered inimitable.

Tradition says

The word of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad through the angel Gabriel.

Scholars say

Revealed over 23 years and compiled into a standard text under Caliph Uthman.

Did you know? Leaves of the Birmingham Quran manuscript were radiocarbon-dated to 568–645 CE.

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Islam · Abbasid Caliphate

Sahih al-Bukhari

600,000 reports checked, about 7,500 kept

When: c. 846 CE
Language: Arabic

The most respected hadith collection in Sunni Islam, arranged by topic from faith and prayer to trade and war. Each report includes its chain of narrators.

Tradition says

Authentic sayings and deeds of the Prophet.

Scholars say

Compiled by Muhammad al-Bukhari from Bukhara, who is said to have examined some 600,000 reports.

Did you know? Al-Bukhari reportedly prayed before recording each hadith.

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Islam · Seljuk Anatolia

Masnavi

Also called Masnavi-ye Ma'navi

Why the world's best-selling poet was a 13th-century mystic

When: 1258–1273 CE
Language: Persian

Six books and about 25,000 verses of Sufi teaching told through stories, fables and parables. It opens with the lament of a reed flute torn from its reed-bed.

Tradition says

Called 'the Quran in Persian' by admirers.

Scholars say

Dictated by the poet Jalal al-Din Rumi in Konya to his disciple Husam al-Din.

Did you know? Rumi's tomb in Konya draws over a million visitors a year.

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Persia & Mandaean 4 texts

Zarathustra's hymns of light against darkness, and the baptismal faith of the Mandaeans.

Persia & Mandaean · Ancient Iran

Gathas

The prophet who invented the battle of good and evil

When: c. 1500–1000 BCE (debated)
Language: Old Avestan

Seventeen hymns praising Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord) and calling people to choose truth (asha) over the lie (druj). Ideas of heaven, hell and final judgement appear here very early.

Tradition says

Hymns composed by the prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster).

Scholars say

Linguistic evidence links them to Zarathustra himself; his dates are uncertain.

Did you know? Zoroastrians still recite the Gathas in their original ancient language.

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Persia & Mandaean · Iran

Avesta

Most of the original Avesta is lost. Here's what survived.

When: composed c. 1200–400 BCE; written c. 5th–6th century CE
Language: Avestan

Includes the Yasna (worship liturgy), the Yashts (hymns to divine beings) and the Vendidad (purity laws). The surviving text may be a quarter of the original.

Tradition says

The holy scripture of Zoroastrianism.

Scholars say

Oral tradition of many priests, finally written in a special alphabet under the Sasanians.

Did you know? The oldest surviving manuscript was copied in 1323 CE.

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Persia & Mandaean · Mandaean (Mesopotamia)

Ginza Rabba

Also called The Great Treasure

The scripture of the last living Gnostics

When: c. 2nd–3rd century CE onward
Language: Mandaic Aramaic

The holy book of the Mandaeans, who revere John the Baptist. It has a 'Right' half on creation and ethics and a 'Left' half on the soul's ascent after death.

Tradition says

Teachings revealed to Adam and other prophets.

Scholars say

Compiled over centuries; colophons trace its copyists back to around the 3rd century.

Did you know? Mandaeans still practise frequent baptism in flowing water.

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Persia & Mandaean · Sasanian & early Islamic Iran

Bundahishn

Also called Primal Creation

A 12,000-year cosmic war between light and darkness

When: c. 8th–9th century CE
Language: Middle Persian

Describes creation by Ohrmazd, the attack of Ahriman, the first man Gayomard and the end of the world. It reads as an encyclopaedia of the Zoroastrian universe.

Tradition says

Zoroastrian account of creation drawn from the Avesta.

Scholars say

Compiled by Zoroastrian priests, including Farnbag, from older material.

Did you know? It includes a list of beneficial and harmful animals.

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Hinduism & Vedic India 13 texts

The Vedas, Upanishads, epics and Puranas: the largest and one of the oldest continuously recited bodies of sacred literature.

Hinduism & Vedic India · Vedic India

Rigveda

Passed down by memory for 3,000 years without changing a syllable

When: c. 1500–1200 BCE
Language: Vedic Sanskrit

1,028 hymns to Agni, Indra, Soma, Varuna and other gods. The Nasadiya hymn (10.129) famously asks whether even the creator knows how creation began.

Tradition says

Apauruṣeya, 'not of human origin', heard by ancient seers (rishis).

Scholars say

Composed orally by families of poets such as Vishvamitra and Vasishtha, and passed down by memory for centuries.

Did you know? UNESCO lists 30 Rigveda manuscripts in Pune on its Memory of the World register.

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Hinduism & Vedic India · Vedic India

Samaveda

The Veda that's meant to be sung

When: c. 1200–1000 BCE
Language: Vedic Sanskrit

Melodies and chants for the soma sacrifice. It is often called the root of Indian classical music.

Tradition says

The Veda of chants, revealed to the rishis.

Scholars say

Mostly verses from the Rigveda arranged for singing in ritual.

Did you know? In the Gita, Krishna says 'Among the Vedas, I am the Sama Veda'.

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Hinduism & Vedic India · Vedic India

Yajurveda

The priest's manual of the Vedic fire sacrifice

When: c. 1200–800 BCE
Language: Vedic Sanskrit

Prose mantras recited by the priest performing rituals. Its White version contains the Isha Upanishad.

Tradition says

The Veda of sacrificial formulas.

Scholars say

Compiled by priestly schools; exists in 'Black' and 'White' versions.

Did you know? The White Yajurveda is said to have been revealed to the sage Yajnavalkya by the sun.

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Hinduism & Vedic India · Vedic India

Atharvaveda

Ancient India's book of spells

When: c. 1200–900 BCE
Language: Vedic Sanskrit

Charms for healing, love, protection, curses and long life, along with philosophical hymns. It is a key source on everyday religion and early Indian medicine.

Tradition says

Revealed to the sages Atharvan and Angiras.

Scholars say

A later collection of popular hymns, charms and spells.

Did you know? It includes spells against fever, snakebite and jealous rivals.

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Hinduism & Vedic India · India

Upanishads

'You are that': the idea that your soul is the universe

When: c. 800–200 BCE (principal Upanishads)
Language: Sanskrit

Philosophical dialogues on Brahman (ultimate reality), Atman (self), karma and liberation. Thirteen or so 'principal' Upanishads are the most studied.

Tradition says

The 'end of the Vedas' (Vedanta), revealed wisdom.

Scholars say

Teachings of sages such as Yajnavalkya and Uddalaka Aruni; the Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya are oldest.

Did you know? The philosopher Schopenhauer kept a Latin translation by his bed.

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Hinduism & Vedic India · India

Ramayana

The epic retold in 300 versions across Asia

When: c. 5th century BCE – 3rd century CE
Language: Sanskrit

Prince Rama, his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana are exiled; Sita is kidnapped by the demon king Ravana and rescued with the help of Hanuman. About 24,000 verses.

Tradition says

Composed by the sage Valmiki, the 'first poet'.

Scholars say

Core attributed to Valmiki, with the first and last books added later.

Did you know? Versions exist in Thailand (Ramakien), Indonesia, Cambodia and beyond.

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Hinduism & Vedic India · India

Mahabharata

The longest poem ever written

When: c. 400 BCE – 400 CE
Language: Sanskrit

The war between the Pandava and Kaurava cousins, with countless side stories, teachings and the Bhagavad Gita. It says of itself: 'What is here may be found elsewhere; what is not here is nowhere.'

Tradition says

Dictated by the sage Vyasa to Ganesha, who wrote it down with his own broken tusk.

Scholars say

Grew over centuries through generations of bards and editors.

Did you know? Its longest versions run to about 100,000 couplets, roughly ten times the Iliad and Odyssey combined.

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Hinduism & Vedic India · India

Bhagavad Gita

A prince refuses to fight, and God answers

When: c. 2nd century BCE – 2nd century CE
Language: Sanskrit

700 verses on duty (dharma), selfless action, devotion and the eternal self. Krishna reveals his cosmic form to Arjuna.

Tradition says

Krishna's words to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, recorded by Vyasa.

Scholars say

A section of the Mahabharata's sixth book, composed by unknown authors.

Did you know? J. Robert Oppenheimer quoted it after the first atomic test: 'Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.'

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Hinduism & Vedic India · India

Manusmriti

Also called Laws of Manu

The ancient law book that still sparks protests

When: c. 2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE
Language: Sanskrit

Rules on duty, ritual, kingship, marriage and social order. Its views on caste and women are strongly criticised, and B. R. Ambedkar publicly burned a copy in 1927.

Tradition says

Laws given by Manu, the first human.

Scholars say

Composed by Brahmin authors; one of many dharma texts and much debated today.

Did you know? It was the first Sanskrit legal text translated into English, in 1794.

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Hinduism & Vedic India · India

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

196 lines behind a 20-billion-dollar industry

When: c. 2nd–5th century CE
Language: Sanskrit

Short aphorisms on calming the mind, the eight limbs of yoga and liberation (kaivalya). Postures (asana) are only a small part.

Tradition says

Composed by the sage Patanjali.

Scholars say

Compiled around the 4th–5th century CE from older yoga teachings.

Did you know? Sutra 1.2 defines yoga as 'the stilling of the movements of the mind'.

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Hinduism & Vedic India · India

Devi Mahatmya

The goddess who defeated the demon no god could beat

When: c. 400–600 CE
Language: Sanskrit

700 verses celebrating the Great Goddess, Durga, who slays the buffalo demon Mahishasura. It is recited during the Navaratri festival.

Tradition says

Told by the sage Markandeya.

Scholars say

Part of the Markandeya Purana, by unknown authors.

Did you know? It is the earliest text to present the Goddess as the supreme reality.

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Hinduism & Vedic India · Tamil South India

Tirukkural

1,330 couplets that every Tamil schoolchild learns

When: c. 450–500 CE (debated)
Language: Tamil

Couplets on virtue, wealth and love, written to be universal rather than tied to one religion. It has been translated into over 40 languages.

Tradition says

Written by the poet-sage Thiruvalluvar.

Scholars say

A single author is generally accepted; dates range from 300 BCE to 500 CE.

Did you know? A 133-foot statue of Thiruvalluvar stands at Kanyakumari, one foot for each chapter.

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Hinduism & Vedic India · India

Bhagavata Purana

The life of Krishna, from butter thief to cosmic lord

When: c. 800–1000 CE
Language: Sanskrit

Twelve books on Vishnu's avatars, with the life of Krishna as its heart. It inspired centuries of art, dance and devotional movements.

Tradition says

Composed by Vyasa and narrated by his son Shuka.

Scholars say

Probably composed in South India by devotional (bhakti) authors.

Did you know? It is the most-loved Purana of the Hare Krishna movement.

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Buddhism 7 texts

The Buddha's discourses, the great Mahayana sutras, and the Tibetan guide to the space between death and rebirth.

Buddhism · India & Sri Lanka

Pali Canon (Tipiṭaka)

Three baskets holding the Buddha's words

When: taught c. 5th century BCE; written c. 1st century BCE
Language: Pali

The Vinaya (monastic rules), Sutta (discourses) and Abhidhamma (philosophy). It is the scripture of Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

Tradition says

The words of the Buddha, recited at the First Council after his death.

Scholars say

Passed down orally by monks, then written on palm leaves at Aluvihara in Sri Lanka.

Did you know? In Myanmar, the whole canon was carved on 729 marble slabs at Kuthodaw Pagoda, sometimes called the world's largest book.

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Buddhism · India

Dhammapada

'We are what we think': 423 verses on the mind

When: c. 3rd century BCE
Language: Pali

Short verses on the mind, desire, anger, wisdom and the path to nirvana. It is one of the most translated Buddhist texts.

Tradition says

Verses spoken by the Buddha.

Scholars say

An anthology of sayings collected by early monks.

Did you know? Its first verse says the mind is the forerunner of all actions.

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Buddhism · Gandhara (Afghanistan & Pakistan)

Gandhāran Buddhist Texts

The oldest Buddhist manuscripts were found in clay pots

When: c. 1st century BCE – 3rd century CE
Language: Gāndhārī (Kharosthi script)

Fragile birch-bark scrolls bought by the British Library in 1994 and found elsewhere since. They are the oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts and among the oldest from South Asia.

Tradition says

Scriptures of the early Buddhist schools of the northwest.

Scholars say

Birch-bark scrolls copied by monks and buried in clay pots.

Did you know? They may have been buried like worn-out relics, much as old Torah scrolls are.

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Buddhism · India; East Asia

Lotus Sutra

The sutra that says everyone can become a Buddha

When: c. 100 BCE – 200 CE
Language: Sanskrit; Chinese

Teaches 'one vehicle' to enlightenment through parables such as the burning house. It is the core text of Tiantai, Tendai and Nichiren Buddhism.

Tradition says

Preached by the Buddha on Vulture Peak.

Scholars say

Composed in stages by Mahayana authors; most read in Kumarajiva's Chinese translation of 406 CE.

Did you know? Nichiren Buddhists chant its title: Nam-myōhō-renge-kyō.

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Buddhism · India; Tang China

Diamond Sutra

The world's oldest dated printed book

When: composed c. 2nd–5th century CE; printed 868 CE
Language: Sanskrit; Chinese

A teaching on non-attachment and seeing through appearances. A woodblock-printed scroll dated 868 CE was found in the Library Cave at Dunhuang and is now in the British Library.

Tradition says

A dialogue between the Buddha and his disciple Subhuti.

Scholars say

A Mahayana Perfection of Wisdom text; the Dunhuang copy was commissioned by a man named Wang Jie.

Did you know? It was printed nearly 600 years before Gutenberg's Bible.

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Buddhism · India or China

Heart Sutra

'Form is emptiness': a whole philosophy on one page

When: c. 4th–7th century CE (debated)
Language: Sanskrit; Chinese

A very short sutra summarising the Perfection of Wisdom. It ends with the mantra 'gate gate pāragate pārasaṃgate bodhi svāhā'.

Tradition says

A teaching given by the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara.

Scholars say

Some scholars think it was first composed in China and later put into Sanskrit.

Did you know? It is probably the most chanted Buddhist text in East Asia.

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Buddhism · Tibet

Bardo Thödol

Also called Tibetan Book of the Dead

A guidebook read aloud to the dead

When: revealed 14th century CE
Language: Classical Tibetan

Instructions read to a dying or dead person to guide them through the bardo, the 49-day state between death and rebirth, towards liberation.

Tradition says

Composed by Padmasambhava in the 8th century and hidden as a 'treasure' (terma).

Scholars say

Revealed by the treasure-finder Karma Lingpa in the 14th century.

Did you know? Its 1927 English title was inspired by the Egyptian Book of the Dead.

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Jainism & Sikhism 3 texts

The non-violent path of Mahavira and the living Guru of the Sikhs.

Jainism & Sikhism · India

Jain Agamas

Religion's strictest code of non-violence

When: taught c. 6th–5th century BCE; written c. 453–466 CE
Language: Ardhamagadhi Prakrit

Scriptures on ahimsa (non-violence), karma, the soul and asceticism. The Digambara sect holds that the original Agamas were lost.

Tradition says

The teachings of Mahavira, compiled by his chief disciples (Gandharas).

Scholars say

The Svetambara canon was written down at the Council of Valabhi.

Did you know? Some Jain monks sweep the ground before them to avoid harming insects.

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Jainism & Sikhism · India

Tattvartha Sutra

All of Jainism in 350 lines

When: c. 2nd–5th century CE
Language: Sanskrit

A compact summary of Jain philosophy in ten chapters: the soul, matter, karma and liberation. It contains the famous phrase 'souls render service to one another'.

Tradition says

Composed by the monk Umaswati (Umasvami).

Scholars say

Accepted by both major Jain sects, which is rare.

Did you know? It was the first Jain text written in Sanskrit.

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Jainism & Sikhism · Punjab

Guru Granth Sahib

A holy book that is treated as a living teacher

When: 1604 CE (Adi Granth); final form 1708 CE
Language: Gurmukhi (Punjabi, Braj, Sanskrit, Persian)

1,430 pages of hymns arranged by musical raga, by six Sikh Gurus and by Hindu and Muslim saints such as Kabir and Baba Farid. It is housed in the Golden Temple at Amritsar.

Tradition says

The eternal living Guru of the Sikhs.

Scholars say

Compiled by Guru Arjan in 1604; completed by Guru Gobind Singh, who declared it Guru in 1708.

Did you know? Each night it is carried to a resting chamber and 'awakened' each morning.

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China 6 texts

Confucian classics and Daoist scriptures that shaped East Asian thought for 2,500 years.

China · Zhou China

I Ching

Also called Book of Changes

64 hexagrams, 3,000 years of fortune-telling

When: core c. 1000–750 BCE
Language: Old Chinese

A divination book of 64 six-line figures, each with judgements and line readings. It shaped Daoism, Confucianism and even inspired Leibniz's binary arithmetic.

Tradition says

Trigrams by the mythical Fu Xi, texts by King Wen and the Duke of Zhou, commentary by Confucius.

Scholars say

A Western Zhou divination manual; the 'Ten Wings' commentaries are later.

Did you know? Traditional readings use 50 yarrow stalks; three coins became a common shortcut.

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China · Zhou China

Classic of Poetry

Also called Shijing

China's oldest songbook includes love songs and ancestor hymns

When: c. 11th–7th century BCE
Language: Old Chinese

305 poems, ranging from peasant love songs to hymns for royal ancestors. It became one of the Five Classics studied for imperial exams.

Tradition says

Selected by Confucius from 3,000 poems.

Scholars say

Folk songs, court odes and temple hymns collected by Zhou officials.

Did you know? Confucius told his son that without studying the Odes he would have nothing to say.

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China · Warring States China

Analects of Confucius

'Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself'

When: c. 475–221 BCE
Language: Classical Chinese

Short dialogues on virtue (ren), ritual (li), learning, family duty and good government. It shaped East Asian ethics and education for over 2,000 years.

Tradition says

The sayings of Confucius (Kongzi), recorded by his disciples.

Scholars say

Compiled over generations by followers and finalised in the Han dynasty.

Did you know? It was the core of China's imperial civil service exams until 1905.

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China · Zhou China

Tao Te Ching

Also called Daodejing

5,000 characters, the most translated book after the Bible

When: c. 4th century BCE
Language: Classical Chinese

81 short chapters on the Dao (the Way), wu wei (effortless action) and softness overcoming hardness. It opens: 'The Dao that can be spoken is not the eternal Dao.'

Tradition says

Written by Laozi, an archivist who left it with a border guard before vanishing west.

Scholars say

Probably a compilation; the oldest copy is on bamboo slips from Guodian (c. 300 BCE).

Did you know? Silk copies found at Mawangdui in 1973 put its two halves in reverse order.

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China · Warring States China

Zhuangzi

Am I a man who dreamed of being a butterfly, or the reverse?

When: c. 4th–3rd century BCE
Language: Classical Chinese

Witty stories and paradoxes about freedom, change and the limits of language. It is the second great classic of Daoism.

Tradition says

Written by the sage Zhuang Zhou.

Scholars say

The 'Inner Chapters' are usually credited to Zhuangzi; the rest to his school.

Did you know? The butterfly dream is one of the most famous thought experiments in philosophy.

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China · Ming China

Daozang

Also called Daoist Canon

1,400 texts of alchemy, talismans and immortality

When: 1445 CE (with supplement 1607)
Language: Classical Chinese

A vast collection of scriptures, rituals, alchemy, meditation and talismans. Earlier versions had been destroyed by imperial order in 1281.

Tradition says

The complete scriptures of the Daoist religion.

Scholars say

Compiled by imperial order under the Zhengtong Emperor of the Ming dynasty.

Did you know? The complete canon fills over 5,000 scrolls.

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Japan (Shinto) 2 texts

The chronicles of the kami, the sun goddess Amaterasu and the origins of the imperial line.

Japan (Shinto) · Nara Japan

Kojiki

Also called Records of Ancient Matters

Japan's oldest book starts with gods stirring the ocean with a spear

When: 712 CE
Language: Old Japanese / Classical Chinese

Myths of Izanagi and Izanami creating Japan, the sun goddess Amaterasu hiding in a cave, and her brother Susanoo slaying an eight-headed serpent. It then traces the emperors' descent from the gods.

Tradition says

Sacred history of the kami and the imperial line.

Scholars say

Compiled by Ō no Yasumaro from the recitations of Hieda no Are, for Empress Genmei.

Did you know? The sword Susanoo found in the serpent's tail is said to be one of the Imperial Regalia.

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Japan (Shinto) · Nara Japan

Nihon Shoki

Also called Chronicles of Japan

The official history that begins in the age of the gods

When: 720 CE
Language: Classical Chinese

Thirty books covering creation myths and imperial history up to 697 CE. It often gives several versions of the same myth side by side.

Tradition says

The official chronicle of Japan from the age of the gods.

Scholars say

Edited by Prince Toneri with Ō no Yasumaro and court scholars.

Did you know? It records the arrival of Buddhism in Japan in the 6th century.

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Greece & Rome 4 texts

Hymns, theogonies and mystery-cult texts of the classical world.

Greece & Rome · Archaic Greece

Theogony

How the Greek gods were born (it's violent)

When: c. 730–700 BCE
Language: Ancient Greek

The family tree of the gods from Chaos and Gaia to the Titans and Olympians, including Kronos swallowing his children and Zeus's rise to power.

Tradition says

Inspired in Hesiod by the Muses on Mount Helicon.

Scholars say

Composed by the poet Hesiod of Boeotia.

Did you know? Hesiod says the Muses gave him a laurel staff and the gift of song while he herded sheep.

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Greece & Rome · Archaic Greece

Homeric Hymns

The hymn that explains the seasons through a kidnapping

When: c. 7th–6th century BCE (most)
Language: Ancient Greek

Hymns to Demeter, Apollo, Hermes, Aphrodite and others. The Hymn to Demeter tells of Persephone taken to the underworld and is linked to the Eleusinian Mysteries.

Tradition says

Composed by Homer.

Scholars say

33 anonymous hymns in Homer's style, written over several centuries.

Did you know? The Hymn to Demeter was rediscovered in 1777 in a Moscow stable.

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Greece & Rome · Macedonia

Derveni Papyrus

Europe's oldest surviving book survived because it was burned

When: c. 340 BCE (copy); text c. 400 BCE
Language: Ancient Greek

A charred roll found in 1962 in a tomb near Thessaloniki. It interprets an Orphic poem about the creation of the gods and discusses rites for the dead.

Tradition says

A commentary on a secret Orphic poem.

Scholars say

Author unknown; partly burned on a funeral pyre, which preserved it.

Did you know? It is on UNESCO's Memory of the World register.

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Greece & Rome · Roman Asia Minor

Orphic Hymns

Incense, invocations and the songs of Orpheus

When: c. 2nd–3rd century CE
Language: Ancient Greek

Short invocations to gods and forces of nature, each paired with a recommended incense. Renaissance magicians such as Marsilio Ficino sang them.

Tradition says

Sung by the legendary poet Orpheus.

Scholars say

87 hymns probably composed for a mystery cult in western Asia Minor.

Did you know? Each hymn names its incense: frankincense, myrrh, storax and more.

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Norse, Celtic & Finnish 5 texts

Odin, Thor, the Tuatha Dé Danann and Väinämöinen, preserved by medieval scribes and folk singers.

Norse, Celtic & Finnish · Viking Age & medieval Iceland

Poetic Edda

A seeress tells Odin how the world will end

When: poems c. 800–1100; manuscript c. 1270 CE
Language: Old Norse

Includes the Völuspá (prophecy of creation and Ragnarök), the Hávamál (Odin's sayings) and hero poems of Sigurd. It is the main source for Norse mythology.

Tradition says

Ancient lays of the gods and heroes.

Scholars say

Anonymous oral poems preserved in the Codex Regius manuscript.

Did you know? The Codex Regius was given to the King of Denmark in 1662 and returned to Iceland in 1971.

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Norse, Celtic & Finnish · Medieval Ireland

Lebor Gabála Érenn

Also called Book of Invasions

The gods of Ireland arrived in a cloud of mist

When: 11th century CE
Language: Middle Irish

Waves of settlers arrive in Ireland, including the Tuatha Dé Danann, the old gods such as the Dagda, Lugh and Brigid, before the Milesians drive them into the hills.

Tradition says

The history of Ireland from the Flood.

Scholars say

Compiled by anonymous Christian monks from older myth and legend.

Did you know? The Tuatha Dé Danann became the 'fairy folk' of later Irish folklore.

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Norse, Celtic & Finnish · Medieval Iceland

Prose Edda

The Christian lawyer who saved the Norse gods

When: c. 1220 CE
Language: Old Norse

Retells Norse myths in prose, from the creation of the world out of the giant Ymir to Thor's fishing trip for the World Serpent and the death of Baldr.

Tradition says

A handbook of the old myths for poets.

Scholars say

Written by the Icelandic chieftain and historian Snorri Sturluson.

Did you know? Snorri was murdered in his cellar in 1241 on the orders of the Norwegian king.

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Norse, Celtic & Finnish · Medieval Wales

Mabinogion

A woman made of flowers, a giant's head that keeps talking

When: manuscripts c. 1350–1410 CE; tales older
Language: Middle Welsh

Eleven tales including the Four Branches, with figures such as Rhiannon, Bran the Blessed and Blodeuwedd, plus early Arthurian stories.

Tradition says

Ancient tales of Welsh gods and heroes.

Scholars say

Anonymous tales in the White Book of Rhydderch and the Red Book of Hergest.

Did you know? Lady Charlotte Guest's translation (1838–45) gave the collection its modern name.

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Norse, Celtic & Finnish · Finland & Karelia

Kalevala

The folk epic that inspired Tolkien and helped create a nation

When: 1835; expanded 1849 CE
Language: Finnish

The sage Väinämöinen, the smith Ilmarinen and the magical Sampo mill. It became a symbol of Finnish identity and independence.

Tradition says

Ancient songs of the Finnish people.

Scholars say

Compiled by the doctor Elias Lönnrot from folk songs he collected in Karelia.

Did you know? J. R. R. Tolkien tried to learn Finnish so he could read it in the original.

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The Americas 5 texts

Maya and Aztec books of creation, astronomy and divination that survived conquest and fire.

The Americas · Postclassic Maya (Yucatán)

Dresden Codex

Maya priests predicted eclipses in this 800-year-old book

When: c. 11th–13th century CE
Language: Maya hieroglyphs

One of only four surviving Maya books, with almanacs, Venus tables, eclipse tables and rituals. It folds out like a screen to 3.5 metres.

Tradition says

A sacred almanac of the Maya priests.

Scholars say

Painted by several scribes, possibly copying older originals.

Did you know? It was water-damaged during the 1945 bombing of Dresden.

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The Americas · Central Mexico (Nahua or Mixtec)

Codex Borgia

A deerskin book of gods that survived the conquest

When: c. 15th century CE
Language: Pictographic

Brilliantly painted pages of the 260-day ritual calendar, gods such as Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca, and a mysterious journey of Venus through the underworld.

Tradition says

A sacred divinatory book (tonalamatl).

Scholars say

Painted on deerskin before the Spanish conquest by unknown priest-artists.

Did you know? It is named after Cardinal Stefano Borgia, who owned it; it is now in the Vatican Library.

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The Americas · Aztec (Mexica)

Florentine Codex

The Aztec world explained by the Aztecs themselves

When: 1545–1577 CE
Language: Nahuatl, Spanish

Twelve books on the gods, rituals, calendar, omens, medicine and the conquest, with over 2,000 illustrations. It is the most detailed source on Aztec religion.

Tradition says

The knowledge of the Aztec elders.

Scholars say

Led by the friar Bernardino de Sahagún, with Nahua scholars and painters.

Did you know? Book 12 tells the conquest of Mexico from the Mexica point of view.

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The Americas · K'iche' Maya (Guatemala)

Popol Vuh

Also called Book of the Community

The gods tried to make humans from mud, then wood, then corn

When: c. 1554–1558 CE (myths far older)
Language: K'iche' Maya (Latin script)

Creation myths and the adventures of the Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque, who defeat the lords of the underworld Xibalba in a ball game. It ends with the K'iche' royal genealogy.

Tradition says

The sacred council book of the K'iche' people.

Scholars say

Written by anonymous K'iche' nobles; survives in a copy by the friar Francisco Ximénez (c. 1701).

Did you know? Scenes of the Hero Twins appear on Classic Maya pottery from over 1,000 years earlier.

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The Americas · Colonial Yucatec Maya

Books of Chilam Balam

A jaguar prophet predicted the coming of strangers

When: c. 17th–18th century CE
Language: Yucatec Maya (Latin script)

Manuscripts named after towns such as Chumayel, holding prophecies, the Maya calendar, medicine and history.

Tradition says

Prophecies of the jaguar priest Chilam Balam.

Scholars say

Compiled by Maya scribes in different towns, mixing old prophecy with colonial history.

Did you know? 'Balam' means jaguar in Yucatec Maya.

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Africa 2 texts

Ethiopia's national epic and the Yoruba oracle of Ifá.

Africa · Ethiopia

Kebra Nagast

Also called Glory of the Kings

The Ark of the Covenant is in Ethiopia (says this book)

When: c. 1314–1322 CE
Language: Ge'ez

Tells how the Queen of Sheba visited King Solomon, and their son Menelik I brought the Ark of the Covenant to Ethiopia. It was the founding story of Ethiopia's Solomonic dynasty.

Tradition says

Found among the books of Hagia Sophia, according to its own preface.

Scholars say

Compiled by Yeshaq, a churchman of Aksum, from older traditions.

Did you know? The Ethiopian Church says the Ark is still kept in a chapel at Aksum.

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Africa · Yoruba (West Africa)

Odu Ifá

Also called The Ifá corpus

256 sacred verses memorised by heart, and no book at all

When: oral tradition, age unknown
Language: Yoruba

Ifá divination uses palm nuts or a divining chain to select one of 256 odu, each with many verses of stories and advice. It spread to Cuba, Brazil and the Americas with the African diaspora.

Tradition says

Wisdom revealed by Orunmila, the orisha of divination.

Scholars say

A vast oral literature memorised and recited by trained priests (babalawo).

Did you know? UNESCO recognised the Ifá divination system as Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2005 (inscribed 2008).

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Hermetic, Magical & Mysterious 10 texts

Grimoires, alchemy, theurgy and manuscripts nobody can read.

Hermetic, Magical & Mysterious · Greco-Roman Egypt

Greek Magical Papyri

Also called PGM

Real spellbooks from Roman Egypt: love charms, curses and summoning

When: c. 2nd century BCE – 5th century CE
Language: Greek, Demotic, Coptic

Spells for love, protection, dream-sending and calling gods and daimons, blending Egyptian, Greek and Jewish elements. They are a key source for the history of magic.

Tradition says

Working spellbooks of Egyptian magicians.

Scholars say

Anonymous ritual specialists; many came from one hoard bought by the dealer Anastasi in the 1820s.

Did you know? One ritual, the 'Mithras Liturgy', describes ascending through the heavens.

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Hermetic, Magical & Mysterious · Roman Egypt

Corpus Hermeticum

The book a Medici ordered translated before Plato

When: c. 100–300 CE
Language: Ancient Greek

Dialogues on the divine mind, creation and spiritual rebirth, beginning with the vision of Poimandres. It inspired Renaissance magic, alchemy and later occultism.

Tradition says

Teachings of Hermes Trismegistus, 'thrice-great Hermes'.

Scholars say

Anonymous Greek-Egyptian authors; dated by the scholar Isaac Casaubon in 1614.

Did you know? Cosimo de' Medici told Marsilio Ficino to translate it first, in 1463.

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Hermetic, Magical & Mysterious · Roman Empire

Chaldean Oracles

The revealed 'Bible' of the Neoplatonist magicians

When: c. 2nd century CE
Language: Ancient Greek

Fragmentary verses on a supreme Father, the soul's ascent and theurgy (ritual 'god-work'). Philosophers such as Proclus revered them.

Tradition says

Divine revelations received through a medium.

Scholars say

Attributed to Julian the Chaldean and his son Julian the Theurgist.

Did you know? Julian the Theurgist was credited with summoning a rainstorm to save a Roman army.

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Hermetic, Magical & Mysterious · Islamic world

Emerald Tablet

'As above, so below': the most famous line in alchemy

When: earliest Arabic version c. 6th–8th century CE
Language: Arabic; Latin

A short, cryptic text that became the foundation of Western alchemy. Isaac Newton made his own translation of it.

Tradition says

Found in the tomb of Hermes Trismegistus, inscribed on emerald.

Scholars say

First appears in Arabic in the Book of the Secret of Creation, attributed to Balinas (pseudo-Apollonius).

Did you know? No physical tablet has ever been found.

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Hermetic, Magical & Mysterious · Al-Andalus

Picatrix

Also called Ghāyat al-Ḥakīm

The medieval manual for pulling down the power of the planets

When: Arabic c. 10th–11th century; Latin 1256 CE
Language: Arabic; Latin

A large handbook of astrological magic: talismans, planetary prayers and images to capture celestial influence. It was secretly copied across Renaissance Europe.

Tradition says

Attributed to the scholar Maslama al-Majriti.

Scholars say

Anonymous compiler; translated for King Alfonso X of Castile.

Did you know? Its title in Arabic means 'The Goal of the Sage'.

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Hermetic, Magical & Mysterious · Bohemia

Codex Gigas

Also called The Devil's Bible

The 75 kg Bible with a full-page portrait of the Devil

When: early 13th century CE
Language: Latin

The largest surviving medieval manuscript, holding the Bible, medical texts, history and spells. It was taken as war loot to Stockholm in 1648.

Tradition says

Legend says a monk wrote it in one night with the Devil's help.

Scholars say

Probably the work of one scribe over 20 years or more, at the monastery of Podlažice.

Did you know? It is about 92 cm tall and was made from around 160 animal skins.

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Hermetic, Magical & Mysterious · Renaissance Italy

Key of Solomon

Also called Clavicula Salomonis

The grimoire that claimed King Solomon as its author

When: c. 14th–15th century CE
Language: Latin, Italian

Instructions for preparing the magician, tools, pentacles and conjurations of spirits. It became one of the most copied grimoires in Europe.

Tradition says

Written by King Solomon for his son Rehoboam.

Scholars say

A Renaissance grimoire drawing on medieval magic.

Did you know? S. L. MacGregor Mathers published an English edition in 1889.

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Hermetic, Magical & Mysterious · Central Europe

Voynich Manuscript

The book nobody on Earth can read

When: vellum dated 1404–1438 CE
Language: Unknown script

240 pages of an unknown script with drawings of unknown plants, star charts and bathing women. Codebreakers, linguists and AI have all tried to crack it.

Tradition says

Once believed to be the work of Roger Bacon.

Scholars say

Author unknown; the vellum was radiocarbon-dated in 2009.

Did you know? It is named after Wilfrid Voynich, who bought it in 1912; it is now at Yale's Beinecke Library.

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Hermetic, Magical & Mysterious · German-speaking Europe

Book of Abramelin

An 18-month ritual to meet your Holy Guardian Angel

When: set c. 1458; oldest manuscripts c. 1608 CE
Language: German, Hebrew, French

Describes a long rite of purification and prayer to contact one's guardian angel, then command spirits using letter squares. It strongly influenced the Golden Dawn and Crowley.

Tradition says

Teachings of the Egyptian mage Abramelin to Abraham of Worms.

Scholars say

Authorship debated; Abraham of Worms may be a pen name.

Did you know? Occult lore warns that its letter squares should not be copied carelessly.

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Hermetic, Magical & Mysterious · Early modern Europe

Lesser Key of Solomon

Also called Lemegeton; Ars Goetia

72 demons, their seals and how to summon them

When: mid-17th century CE
Language: English (manuscripts)

Five books, of which the Ars Goetia lists 72 spirits with their ranks, seals and powers. It became central to modern ceremonial magic.

Tradition says

Attributed to King Solomon.

Scholars say

Anonymous; Ars Goetia draws heavily on Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (1577).

Did you know? Aleister Crowley edited Mathers's translation of the Goetia in 1904.

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Modern Revelations 4 texts

Scriptures of faiths and movements born in the last two centuries.

Modern Revelations · United States

Book of Mormon

Golden plates, a seer stone and a new scripture

When: 1830 CE
Language: English

Tells of ancient peoples in the Americas, the Nephites and Lamanites, and a visit by the risen Christ. It is the founding scripture of the Latter Day Saint movement.

Tradition says

Translated by Joseph Smith from golden plates revealed by the angel Moroni.

Scholars say

Historians see it as a 19th-century composition by Joseph Smith.

Did you know? Smith dictated most of the text in about three months in 1829.

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Modern Revelations · Ottoman Palestine

Kitáb-i-Aqdas

Also called The Most Holy Book

A holy book written in a prison city

When: c. 1873 CE
Language: Arabic

Laws and teachings of the Baháʼí Faith on prayer, fasting, marriage and world unity. It calls for a universal auxiliary language and world peace.

Tradition says

Revealed by Baháʼu'lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith.

Scholars say

Written by Baháʼu'lláh while imprisoned in Acre.

Did you know? Its authorised English translation was only published in 1992.

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Modern Revelations · Cairo / Britain

The Book of the Law

Also called Liber AL vel Legis

'Do what thou wilt': three days in a Cairo hotel

When: 8–10 April 1904 CE
Language: English

The central text of Thelema, with three chapters spoken by the goddesses and gods Nuit, Hadit and Ra-Hoor-Khuit. It inspired many modern occult movements.

Tradition says

Dictated to Aleister Crowley by a spirit called Aiwass.

Scholars say

Written by Crowley in Cairo over three days.

Did you know? Crowley said an Egyptian funeral stele in a Cairo museum, numbered 666, set it off.

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Modern Revelations · Britain

Book of Shadows

The witch's handbook behind modern Wicca

When: c. 1949–1957 CE
Language: English

Rituals, spells, charms and lore copied by hand by each initiate. Doreen Valiente's 'Charge of the Goddess' is its most famous passage.

Tradition says

Handed down through initiated covens of witches.

Scholars say

Compiled by Gerald Gardner and reworked by Doreen Valiente for Gardnerian Wicca.

Did you know? Traditionally each witch copies the book in their own handwriting.

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About this atlas

Dates are the ranges most commonly given by scholars. Many of these texts were passed down orally long before they were written, and some dates are still debated. Where a religious tradition and modern scholarship disagree about authorship, both views are shown side by side, without judging either.

Photos are loaded from Wikimedia Commons, where every image is public domain or freely licensed. Each photo links to its Commons page with the author and licence.

Primordial Codex: timeline of ancient documents → Gods Room: 65 deities → Occult Archive → Printed editions at ARQS Press →